Sociology, Methods and Techniques: Class 12
I. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
(Each question carries 1 mark)
According to Auguste Comte, in which stage of social development is knowledge based on supernatural forces?
a) Metaphysical Stage
b) Theological Stage
c) Positive Stage
d) Scientific Stage
Answer: b) Theological Stage
In Auguste Comte's 'Law of Three Stages', the final stage is characterized by:
a) Belief in abstract forces
b) Reliance on scientific observation and logic
c) Domination by military leaders
d) Explanations based on divine will
Answer: b) Reliance on scientific observation and logic
Emile Durkheim's study on 'Suicide' aimed to demonstrate that suicide is:
a) Purely an individual psychological problem
b) Primarily a biological phenomenon
c) A social fact influenced by social integration and regulation
d) Caused by economic depression only
Answer: c) A social fact influenced by social integration and regulation
According to Durkheim, 'Altruistic Suicide' occurs when:
a) Individuals are too integrated into society.
b) Individuals are poorly integrated into society.
c) Society's regulation is too strong.
d) Society's regulation is too weak.
Answer: a) Individuals are too integrated into society.
G.S. Ghurye is known for his sociological contributions, particularly on the study of:
a) Urbanization
b) Industrialization
c) Caste
d) Tribal movements
Answer: c) Caste
G.S. Ghurye viewed caste as primarily based on:
a) Economic class
b) Birth and ritual status
c) Political power
d) Individual achievement
Answer: b) Birth and ritual status
M.N. Srinivas proposed the concept of 'Sanskritisation' to explain:
a) The spread of Sanskrit language
b) The process by which lower castes adopt customs of upper castes
c) The decline of caste system
d) The Westernization of Indian society
Answer: b) The process by which lower castes adopt customs of upper castes
Sanskritisation is a process of:
a) Social mobility within the caste framework
b) Revolutionary social change
c) Cultural degradation
d) Economic development
Answer: a) Social mobility within the caste framework
Which research method involves systematically watching and recording behavior in a natural setting?
a) Questionnaire
b) Schedule
c) Observation
d) Interview
Answer: c) Observation
When a researcher directly participates in the daily life of the group being studied, it is called:
a) Non-participant observation
b) Controlled observation
c) Participant observation
d) Structured observation
Answer: c) Participant observation
A 'Questionnaire' is a tool used in research that consists of:
a) A list of questions read out by an interviewer
b) A set of written questions answered by respondents themselves
c) Detailed life histories
d) Experiments in a laboratory
Answer: b) A set of written questions answered by respondents themselves
A major merit of using a 'Questionnaire' is:
a) High response rate from illiterate respondents
b) Suitable for in-depth qualitative data
c) Cost-effective for large samples
d) Allows for clarification of ambiguous questions
Answer: c) Cost-effective for large samples
A 'Schedule' is a research tool where questions are:
a) Sent by mail to respondents
b) Filled out by the interviewer in a face-to-face setting
c) Discussed in a group setting
d) Used only for experiments
Answer: b) Filled out by the interviewer in a face-to-face setting
Which of these is a demerit of using a 'Questionnaire'?
a) Requires skilled interviewers
b) Limited use with illiterate respondents
c) Time-consuming for large samples
d) High potential for interviewer bias
Answer: b) Limited use with illiterate respondents
A key merit of using a 'Schedule' over a 'Questionnaire' is:
a) Lower cost per respondent
b) Reduced interviewer bias
c) Higher response rate and possibility for clarification
d) Greater anonymity for respondents
Answer: c) Higher response rate and possibility for clarification
II. Short Questions
(Each question carries 2 marks)
Who was Auguste Comte? What is his 'Law of Three Stages'?
Answer: Auguste Comte is considered the founder of sociology and positivism. His 'Law of Three Stages' posits that human societies and knowledge pass through three intellectual stages: Theological, Metaphysical, and Positive (or Scientific).
Briefly explain the 'Theological Stage' in Comte's theory.
Answer: In the Theological Stage, human minds explain phenomena by attributing them to supernatural powers or divine will (e.g., Gods, spirits). Fetishism, polytheism, and monotheism are sub-stages.
What was Emile Durkheim's main argument in his study 'Suicide'?
Answer: Durkheim argued that suicide, seemingly a personal act, is a 'social fact' influenced by the degree of social integration (attachment to groups) and social regulation (control by society's norms) in a society, rather than solely individual psychological factors.
Differentiate between 'Egoistic' and 'Altruistic' suicide as per Durkheim.
Answer: Egoistic suicide results from too little social integration (individuals feel isolated). Altruistic suicide results from too much social integration (individuals are excessively committed to group norms, e.g., self-sacrifice for a cause).
Who was G.S. Ghurye? What was his primary focus in the study of Indian society?
Answer: G.S. Ghurye was a pioneering Indian sociologist, often considered the 'father of Indian sociology'. His primary focus was the extensive study of the Caste system in India, including its origins, characteristics, and transformations.
List two key characteristics of Caste as identified by Ghurye.
Answer: Two characteristics identified by Ghurye are: 1) Segmental Division of Society: Society divided into distinct, hereditary segments. 2) Hierarchy: A fixed grading of status. (Others include restrictions on commensality and marriage, civil/religious disabilities).
Who was M.N. Srinivas? What is the concept of 'Sanskritisation'?
Answer: M.N. Srinivas was a renowned Indian sociologist and social anthropologist. 'Sanskritisation' is a concept he proposed to describe the process by which a 'low' Hindu caste, tribal, or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a 'high', often 'twice-born', caste.
What are the limitations of 'Sanskritisation' as a process of social mobility?
Answer: Limitations include: 1) It only allows positional change within the caste hierarchy, not structural change. 2) It does not lead to upward mobility for the entire caste system. 3) It often results in the adoption of conservative and ritualistic practices of upper castes, which may reinforce inequality.
Define 'Observation' as a research method.
Answer: Observation is a research method in which the researcher systematically watches, listens, and records the behavior, actions, or interactions of individuals or groups in their natural settings, without direct intervention.
Differentiate between 'Participant Observation' and 'Non-Participant Observation'.
Answer: In Participant Observation, the researcher actively participates in the daily life of the group being studied. In Non-Participant Observation, the researcher observes from a distance without directly engaging with the subjects, maintaining objectivity.
What is a 'Questionnaire' as a research tool?
Answer: A Questionnaire is a research tool consisting of a set of pre-formulated written questions that are distributed to respondents, who fill them out themselves, typically without the direct presence or intervention of the researcher.
List two merits of using a 'Questionnaire'.
Answer: Two merits are: 1) Cost-effective and time-efficient for large samples: Can gather data from many people simultaneously. 2) Reduces interviewer bias: As there is no direct interaction with a researcher.
List two demerits of using a 'Questionnaire'.
Answer: Two demerits are: 1) Low response rate: Respondents may not return the questionnaire. 2) Limited use with illiterate respondents: Requires respondents to be able to read and write.
What is a 'Schedule' as a research tool?
Answer: A Schedule is a research tool similar to a questionnaire, consisting of a set of structured questions. However, unlike a questionnaire, it is filled out by the researcher or trained interviewer in a face-to-face interview with the respondent.
Mention two key merits of using a 'Schedule' over a 'Questionnaire'.
Answer: Two merits are: 1) Higher response rate: Interviewers can encourage participation and ensure completion. 2) Clarification of questions: Interviewers can clarify ambiguous questions or provide explanations to respondents, ensuring better understanding.
III. Long Questions
(Each question carries 5 marks)
Discuss Auguste Comte's 'Law of Three Stages' in detail, explaining each stage. How does this law reflect Comte's positivist approach to understanding social evolution?
Answer:
Auguste Comte (1798-1857), often regarded as the 'Father of Sociology', proposed the 'Law of Three Stages' as a fundamental principle governing the intellectual and social evolution of humanity. This law posits that both human knowledge (how we understand the world) and society as a whole progress through three distinct stages:
Theological Stage (or Fictitious Stage):
Characteristics: In this initial stage, human beings explain all phenomena by attributing them to supernatural powers, divine will, or mythical beings. There is a strong reliance on faith, imagination, and a belief in anthropomorphic deities.
Sub-stages:
Fetishism: The earliest form, where inanimate objects are believed to possess divine powers.
Polytheism: Belief in multiple gods, each presiding over different aspects of nature or life.
Monotheism: Belief in one supreme God who controls all events.
Social Organization: Characterized by military dominance, strong family bonds, and a hierarchical social structure.
Metaphysical Stage (or Abstract Stage):
Characteristics: This stage marks a transition from the theological. Explanations for phenomena shift from supernatural entities to abstract forces, principles, or essences. Instead of Gods, concepts like 'nature', 'reason', or 'universal spirit' are used to explain the world. It involves abstract reasoning but still lacks empirical verification.
Social Organization: Characterized by the dominance of legal and philosophical concepts, with the rise of legal experts and philosophers. There is a weakening of military authority and a move towards more complex political systems.
Positive Stage (or Scientific Stage):
Characteristics: This is the final and highest stage of human intellectual and social development. Knowledge is based on systematic observation, experimentation, comparison, and the discovery of verifiable laws (like in natural sciences). There is a rejection of supernatural and abstract explanations in favor of empirical evidence and logical reasoning. This stage aims for prediction and control.
Social Organization: Characterized by industrial society, peace, order, and the dominance of scientists, industrialists, and moral leaders. Society is guided by scientific principles and aims for social progress. Sociology, as a positive science, emerges in this stage.
Comte's Positivist Approach and the Law of Three Stages:
Comte's Law of Three Stages is central to his positivist philosophy. Positivism, for Comte, meant applying the methods of natural sciences (observation, experimentation, comparison) to the study of social phenomena to discover invariable natural laws governing society.
Progression and Determinism: The law suggests a linear, deterministic progression of human thought and society towards a more rational and scientific understanding.
Scientific Basis for Sociology: For Comte, sociology itself could only emerge in the Positive Stage, as it relied on scientific methods to study society. He believed that just as physics had discovered laws of nature, sociology could discover laws of society, allowing for social planning and improvement.
Social Order and Progress: Comte believed that the Positive Stage would bring about social order (through scientific understanding) and continuous progress, overcoming the intellectual chaos and social instability he observed in his time. He aimed to build a 'positive' science of society to guide humanity towards this ideal state.
Thus, the Law of Three Stages reflects Comte's conviction that scientific knowledge is the ultimate form of understanding and that societies inevitably evolve towards a stage where scientific principles govern thought and social organization.
Analyze M.N. Srinivas's concept of 'Sanskritisation', explaining its meaning and characteristics. Discuss the implications and limitations of Sanskritisation as a process of social change and mobility in the Indian caste system.
Answer:
M.N. Srinivas (1916-1999), a prominent Indian sociologist, introduced the concept of 'Sanskritisation' to explain a specific form of social change and mobility observed in the Indian caste system.
Meaning of Sanskritisation:
Sanskritisation is defined as the process by which a 'low' Hindu caste, tribal group, or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a 'high', often 'twice-born' (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya), caste. It involves adopting the dietary habits, dress, rituals, and even names associated with upper castes in an attempt to claim a higher position in the caste hierarchy.
Characteristics of Sanskritisation:
Upward Mobility (Positional Change): It is a process of social mobility, but primarily a 'positional' change within the existing caste framework, not a 'structural' change of the system itself. The caste system's hierarchy remains, but the position of a particular caste within it might improve.
Imitation/Emulation: The lower castes consciously or unconsciously imitate the practices, beliefs, and lifestyles of the locally dominant upper castes.
Collective Phenomenon: It is typically a group process, involving a whole caste or sub-caste, rather than just individuals.
Long-Term Process: It is a gradual process that unfolds over several generations.
Not Always Successful: The claim to higher status is not automatically accepted by the upper castes, who may resist or deny the claim.
Dominant Caste as Reference Group: The reference group for Sanskritisation is often not necessarily Brahmins, but the locally dominant caste which could be a Shudra caste with significant economic and political power.
Adoption of 'Pure' Practices: Often involves giving up 'impure' practices (like meat-eating, liquor consumption) and adopting 'pure' ones (vegetarianism, Brahminical rituals).
Implications and Limitations of Sanskritisation:
Implications (Contributions to Social Change/Understanding):
Explains Mobility: It provides a valuable framework for understanding how social mobility, albeit limited, occurred within the rigid caste system over centuries.
Cultural Adaptation: It highlights the adaptive nature of the caste system, where groups could seek to improve their status through cultural emulation.
Reinforces Hierarchy (Paradoxically): By adopting upper-caste ways, lower castes implicitly accept the legitimacy of the caste hierarchy and the superiority of upper-caste culture.
Micro-Level Change: It focuses on changes at the micro-level (within a specific region or village) and explains how castes interact and claim status.
Shift from Ritual to Economic Power: Srinivas noted that Sanskritisation often became easier for castes that had already gained economic or political power, suggesting that ritual status could follow economic upliftment.
Limitations (Critiques):
Limited Structural Change: The most significant criticism is that it does not lead to a fundamental change in the caste system's structure. It allows for vertical mobility for individual castes but does not challenge the hierarchical principle itself.
Adoption of Conservative Practices: It often results in the adoption of conservative and ritualistic practices (e.g., rigid patriarchy, dowry, strict vegetarianism), which may not be progressive in a modern context.
Devaluation of Own Culture: It implicitly devalues the original culture and practices of the lower castes, promoting an aspiration to imitate the dominant.
Ignoring Economic and Political Factors: Critics argue that Srinivas initially overemphasized ritual status and overlooked the crucial roles of economic power, political mobilization, and land ownership in determining caste status.
Masking Inequality: Some argue that by focusing on cultural imitation, Sanskritisation can obscure the persistence of discrimination and exploitation faced by lower castes even after adopting upper-caste ways.
Limited to Hindu Castes: The concept is primarily applicable to Hindu castes and does not fully explain mobility in other religious groups or the broader class structure.
Despite its limitations, Sanskritisation remains a seminal concept in Indian sociology, offering crucial insights into the dynamics of caste and social mobility in India.
Explain 'Observation' as a primary method of sociological research, detailing its various types. Further, critically discuss 'Questionnaire' and 'Schedule' as major tools and techniques for data collection, outlining their respective merits and demerits.
Answer:
Observation as a Method:
Observation is a primary method of sociological research where the researcher systematically watches, listens, and records the behavior, actions, interactions, or characteristics of individuals or groups in their natural settings, without directly manipulating variables. It allows researchers to gather first-hand, rich qualitative data on social phenomena as they occur.
Types of Observation:
Participant Observation:
Meaning: The researcher actively participates in the daily life and activities of the group being studied, becoming a part of their community or setting. They live, work, and interact with the subjects to gain an insider's perspective.
Merits: Provides rich, in-depth, and nuanced understanding of social life; helps build rapport and trust with subjects; allows access to hidden or informal aspects of culture.
Demerits: High risk of researcher bias and subjectivity; time-consuming and expensive; ethical challenges regarding identity disclosure; difficulty in remaining objective; limited generalizability.
Non-Participant Observation:
Meaning: The researcher observes the group from a distance without actively participating in their activities. They remain detached and objective, often without the subjects being aware of being observed (covert) or being aware (overt).
Merits: Higher objectivity; less risk of influencing subjects' behavior; can be conducted more quickly than participant observation.
Demerits: Lack of in-depth understanding of meanings and motivations; difficulty in capturing nuances of social interaction; ethical concerns if covert.
Structured Observation (Systematic Observation):
Meaning: The researcher uses a pre-determined observation schedule or checklist to systematically record specific behaviors or events. It is quantitative in nature and focuses on quantifiable aspects.
Merits: High reliability and replicability; allows for statistical analysis; reduces observer bias.
Demerits: Lacks depth and context; may miss unexpected or spontaneous behaviors; can be artificial if conducted in controlled settings.
Unstructured Observation:
Meaning: The researcher observes with minimal pre-conceived categories, aiming to capture the full range of behaviors and interactions as they unfold. It is more qualitative and exploratory.
Merits: Provides rich, contextual data; useful for exploratory studies where little is known; flexible.
Demerits: Prone to observer bias; difficult to generalize; challenging to analyze systematically.
Questionnaire and Schedule as Tools/Techniques for Data Collection:
These are primary tools for gathering data directly from respondents, primarily through asking questions. They are typically used in survey research.
1. Questionnaire:
Meaning: A research tool consisting of a set of written questions presented to respondents, who are expected to read the questions and record their answers independently, usually without the direct assistance of an interviewer. It can be self-administered (mailed, online, or hand-delivered).
Merits:
Cost-effective and Time-efficient: Can gather data from large samples spread geographically with minimal cost per respondent.
Reduces Interviewer Bias: As there is no direct interaction with an interviewer, subjective influences are minimized.
Anonymity and Confidentiality: Can provide greater anonymity, encouraging honest responses on sensitive topics.
Standardization: All respondents receive the exact same questions, ensuring consistency.
Demerits:
Low Response Rate: Many respondents may not return the questionnaire, leading to non-response bias.
Limited Use with Illiterate Respondents: Requires respondents to be literate and capable of understanding questions.
Lack of Clarification: Respondents cannot ask for clarification on ambiguous questions, leading to misinterpretation.
No Probing: Cannot probe for deeper insights or follow up on interesting responses.
Quality of Data: Data quality can suffer if respondents are not motivated or careful.
2. Schedule:
Meaning: A research tool similar to a questionnaire in terms of a structured list of questions, but it is filled out by a trained interviewer in a face-to-face interview with the respondent. The interviewer reads the questions and records the answers.
Merits:
Higher Response Rate: Interviewers can persuade respondents to participate and ensure completion.
Clarification and Probing: Interviewers can clarify questions, explain terms, and probe for more detailed or nuanced responses.
Suitable for Illiterate Respondents: Can be used to gather data from respondents who cannot read or write.
Observation of Non-Verbal Cues: Interviewers can observe body language, tone, and other non-verbal cues.
Better Data Quality: Generally yields more complete and accurate data due to direct interaction.
Demerits:
More Expensive and Time-Consuming: Requires trained interviewers, travel, and more time per respondent, making it costly for large samples.
Interviewer Bias: The interviewer's personal characteristics, demeanor, or leading questions can inadvertently influence responses.
Less Anonymity: Respondents may feel less anonymous, potentially leading to less honest answers on sensitive topics.
Logistical Challenges: Organizing and supervising a team of interviewers can be complex.
In summary, while observation provides rich contextual data, questionnaires and schedules are essential for large-scale surveys. The choice between a questionnaire and a schedule depends on factors like the research objectives, target population's literacy, budget, and desired depth of data.
