Religious Movements of Sixth Century B.C. - Jainism and Buddhism: A Critical Evaluation
Part A: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Which of the following was NOT a major reason for the rise of new religious movements in the 6th century BCE?
a) Increasing ritualism and dominance of the Brahmanical class
b) Animal sacrifices leading to a decline in cattle wealth
c) Growth of trade and urban centers, enhancing the status of Vaishyas
d) Support for extreme ascetic practices by the ruling Kshatriyas
Answer: d) Support for extreme ascetic practices by the ruling Kshatriyas
Rationale: While Kshatriyas often patronized these new movements, the new religions (especially Buddhism) often advocated a middle path, not necessarily extreme asceticism, which was more characteristic of Jainism. The other options were strong contributing factors.
2. The First Tirthankara of Jainism is traditionally believed to be:
a) Vardhamana Mahavira
b) Parsvanatha
c) Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)
d) Ajitanatha
Answer: c) Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)
Rationale: While Mahavira is considered the 24th and last Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha is traditionally regarded as the first.
3. The core tenet of Jainism, 'Ahimsa', primarily means:
a) Seeking knowledge
b) Non-violence to all living beings
c) Practicing meditation
d) Renouncing all worldly possessions
Answer: b) Non-violence to all living beings
Rationale: Ahimsa is the foundational and most emphasized principle in Jainism, applied to an extreme degree.
4. The 'Three Jewels' (Triratna) of Jainism consist of:
a) Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya
b) Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct
c) Karma, Rebirth, Moksha
d) Sangha, Dhamma, Buddha
Answer: b) Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct
Rationale: These three are the path to liberation (moksha) in Jainism.
5. Which of the following is NOT one of the Four Noble Truths taught by Buddha?
a) Life is suffering (Dukkha)
b) Suffering has a cause (Samudaya)
c) Suffering can be stopped (Nirodha)
d) The soul is eternal (Atman)
Answer: d) The soul is eternal (Atman)
Rationale: Buddhism explicitly denies a permanent, eternal self or soul (Anatta), making this a key difference from other Indian philosophies.
6. The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga) in Buddhism is intended to lead to:
a) Acquisition of wealth
b) Social status
c) Cessation of suffering (Nirvana)
d) Political power
Answer: c) Cessation of suffering (Nirvana)
Rationale: The Eightfold Path is the practical guide to overcome Dukkha and attain Nirvana.
7. Which language was primarily used for the early Buddhist scriptures (Tripitakas)?
a) Sanskrit
b) Prakrit
c) Pali
d) Ardhamagadhi
Answer: c) Pali
Rationale: Pali was the language of the common people in Magadha and was adopted by Buddha for his teachings, helping their wider dissemination.
8. The two main sects of Jainism, divided primarily over the issue of nudity and monastic practices, are:
a) Hinayana and Mahayana
b) Digambara and Svetambara
c) Theravada and Vajrayana
d) Vaishnavism and Shaivism
Answer: b) Digambara and Svetambara
Rationale: Digambaras (sky-clad, naked) and Svetambaras (white-clad) represent the two main divisions in Jainism.
9. The Buddhist concept of 'Anatta' refers to:
a) The impermanence of all things
b) The absence of a permanent, unchanging self or soul
c) The suffering inherent in existence
d) The importance of meditation
Answer: b) The absence of a permanent, unchanging self or soul
Rationale: Anatta (non-self) is a core philosophical tenet of Buddhism.
10. Which of the following statements correctly identifies a key difference between Jainism and Buddhism regarding the soul?
a) Both deny the existence of any soul.
b) Jainism believes in an eternal soul (Jiva), while Buddhism denies a permanent soul (Anatta).
c) Buddhism believes in multiple souls, while Jainism believes in a single universal soul.
d) Both believe in a soul but differ on its origin.
Answer: b) Jainism believes in an eternal soul (Jiva), while Buddhism denies a permanent soul (Anatta).
Rationale: This is a fundamental philosophical divergence between the two traditions.
11. The term 'Sangha' in the context of Buddhism refers to:
a) The teachings of Buddha
b) The monastic order of monks and nuns
c) The path to liberation
d) A type of Buddhist scripture
Answer: b) The monastic order of monks and nuns
Rationale: The Sangha, along with Buddha and Dhamma, forms the Three Jewels (Triratna) of Buddhism.
12. Which Jain doctrine emphasizes that reality is multifaceted and that no single viewpoint can capture the whole truth?
a) Ahimsa
b) Aparigraha
c) Anekantavada
d) Brahmacharya
Answer: c) Anekantavada
Rationale: Anekantavada (non-absolutism) and its corollary Syadvada (conditional predication) are unique to Jain philosophy.
13. A significant contribution of Buddhism to Indian architecture includes the construction of:
a) Elaborate multi-storied temples for deities
b) Stupas, Chaityas, and Viharas
c) Massive irrigation canals
d) Fortified city walls
Answer: b) Stupas, Chaityas, and Viharas
Rationale: Stupas (reliquary mounds), Chaityas (prayer halls), and Viharas (monasteries) are characteristic Buddhist architectural forms.
14. What was the attitude of both Jainism and Buddhism towards the prevalent Varna system?
a) They strongly endorsed and reinforced it.
b) They completely ignored its existence.
c) They challenged its birth-based hierarchy and promoted equality.
d) They created their own new, stricter caste systems.
Answer: c) They challenged its birth-based hierarchy and promoted equality
Rationale: Both movements rejected the Brahmanical claim of superiority by birth and opened their doors to all varnas, advocating for merit and ethical conduct.
15. The earliest rock-cut caves that housed Jain monks are found at:
a) Ajanta
b) Ellora
c) Udayagiri and Khandagiri
d) Karla
Answer: c) Udayagiri and Khandagiri
Rationale: The caves at Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Odisha, particularly associated with King Kharavela, are among the earliest Jain rock-cut shelters.
Part B: Short Answer Questions
1. Name the founders of Jainism and Buddhism.
Answer: Jainism was popularized by Vardhamana Mahavira (24th Tirthankara), while Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha).
2. List the 'Three Jewels' (Triratna) of Buddhism.
Answer: Buddha (the enlightened one), Dhamma (the teachings), and Sangha (the monastic community).
3. What is the central concept of 'Ahimsa' in Jainism, and how rigorously is it applied?
Answer: Ahimsa means non-violence towards all living beings (humans, animals, insects, plants). It is applied with extreme rigor in Jainism, influencing diet, occupation, and daily life.
4. State any two reasons why the 6th century BCE was conducive to the rise of new religious movements.
Answer: Increasing ritualism and animal sacrifices in Vedic religion, dominance of Brahmins, growth of a new urban economy with the rise of Vaishyas, and widespread social discontent.
5. What is the core idea behind the Buddhist 'Middle Path'?
Answer: The Middle Path advocates avoiding extremes of self-indulgence and severe asceticism, proposing a balanced approach to life for achieving liberation.
6. Name any two contributions of Buddhism to Indian education.
Answer: Establishment of famous monastic universities like Nalanda and Taxila (though Taxila predates Buddhism as well, it flourished as a Buddhist center), and promotion of literacy through Pali language.
7. How did Jainism influence the development of regional languages?
Answer: Jain texts were primarily composed in Prakrit and its regional variations (like Ardhamagadhi), contributing to the development and standardization of these languages.
8. What is 'Nirvana' in Buddhism, and how is it achieved?
Answer: Nirvana is the ultimate goal in Buddhism, signifying the cessation of suffering, craving, and the cycle of rebirth. It is achieved by following the Eightfold Path.
9. Identify one major difference in the monastic practices of Digambara and Svetambara Jain monks.
Answer: Digambara monks practice complete nudity as a mark of non-possession, while Svetambara monks wear white clothes.
10. What is the significance of the Buddhist Stupa in terms of architecture and religious practice?
Answer: Stupas are hemispherical structures that contain relics of the Buddha or Buddhist saints, serving as objects of veneration and meditation, representing the Buddha's enlightened mind.
Part C: Long Answer Questions
1. Critically evaluate the core teachings of Jainism and Buddhism, highlighting their similarities and differences. How did these teachings pose a challenge to the existing Brahmanical order of the 6th century BCE?
Answer:
The 6th century BCE was a period of profound intellectual and spiritual ferment in India, leading to the rise of several heterodox religious movements, most notably Jainism and Buddhism. Both challenged the dominant Brahmanical order and offered alternative paths to liberation.
I. Core Teachings: Similarities and Differences:
Similarities:
Rejection of Vedic Authority: Both Jainism and Buddhism rejected the infallibility of the Vedas and the supremacy of Vedic rituals and sacrifices.
Karma and Rebirth: Both believed in the doctrine of Karma, where actions (good or bad) determine one's fate in successive rebirths (Samsara).
Path to Liberation: Both aimed at achieving liberation (Moksha in Jainism, Nirvana in Buddhism) from the cycle of birth and death, which they saw as inherently filled with suffering.
Emphasis on Ethical Conduct: Both stressed the importance of ethical living, moral conduct, and self-control over mere ritualism. They promoted non-violence, truthfulness, and non-stealing.
No God as Creator: Neither religion emphasized a creator god, focusing instead on individual effort for salvation.
Open to All Varnas: Both welcomed individuals from all varnas into their monastic orders and followership, rejecting the birth-based hierarchy of the Brahmanical system.
Differences:
Ahimsa (Non-Violence):
Jainism: Practiced Ahimsa to an extreme degree, extending it to all living beings, including plants and microorganisms. This led to strict dietary and occupational restrictions for followers and extreme asceticism for monks.
Buddhism: Advocated non-violence and compassion, but it was generally more practical and less extreme than Jainism. It did not prohibit agriculture or other professions that might involve incidental harm.
Soul/Self (Atman/Jiva):
Jainism: Believes in the existence of an eternal, individual soul (Jiva) in every living being, which is trapped by Karma and needs to be purified for liberation.
Buddhism: Propagates the doctrine of 'Anatta' (no-self), arguing that there is no permanent, unchanging soul or self. The 'self' is a constantly changing combination of five aggregates (Skandhas).
Path to Liberation:
Jainism: Emphasizes severe asceticism, penance, fasting, and rigorous self-mortification to cleanse Karma and attain Moksha. The 'Triratna' (Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct) is key.
Buddhism: Advocates the 'Middle Path' (Madhyama Marga), avoiding both extreme indulgence and severe asceticism. Liberation (Nirvana) is achieved through understanding the Four Noble Truths and following the Eightfold Path.
Anekantavada/Syadvada (Jainism Specific): Jainism developed unique philosophical doctrines like Anekantavada (multi-faceted reality) and Syadvada (conditional predication), asserting that truth is relative and can be viewed from multiple perspectives, which is not a core tenet in Buddhism.
Monasticism: While both had monastic orders, Jain monasticism (especially Digambara) required complete nudity and extreme austerity, while Buddhist monasticism was less rigorous and allowed for basic clothing and possessions.
II. Challenge to the Brahmanical Order:
Both Jainism and Buddhism posed a significant challenge to the existing Brahmanical order in the 6th century BCE:
Rejection of Ritualism and Sacrifices: They directly questioned the elaborate and expensive Vedic rituals, sacrifices, and the exclusive role of Brahmins as intermediaries. They presented simpler, more accessible paths to liberation based on individual conduct rather than ritualistic performances.
Opposition to Animal Sacrifice: Their emphasis on Ahimsa directly condemned the widespread animal sacrifices practiced in Vedic rituals, which were economically detrimental (loss of cattle) and ethically questioned by the new movements.
Challenge to Varna System: Both religions rejected the rigid, birth-based Varna hierarchy and the Brahmanical claims of supremacy. They opened their doors to people from all varnas, including the Shudras, and the monastic orders were open to anyone who wished to join, regardless of their social origin. This offered social mobility and a sense of dignity to the lower varnas and women.
Emphasis on Moral Conduct over Birth: They shifted the focus from birthright and ritual purity to individual merit, ethical living, and spiritual understanding as the means to salvation.
Use of Vernacular Languages: By using Prakrit (Jainism) and Pali (Buddhism) instead of Sanskrit (the language of Vedic texts), they made their teachings accessible to the common people, bypassing the Brahmanical monopoly on sacred knowledge.
Patronage from Kshatriyas and Vaishyas: The Kshatriya rulers, who often resented Brahmanical dominance, and the rising Vaishya merchant class, who found the costly Vedic sacrifices burdensome and Ahimsa conducive to trade, offered significant patronage to these new religions, weakening the Brahmanical hold.
In conclusion, Jainism and Buddhism, though distinct in their philosophies and practices, collectively provided a powerful critique of the prevalent Brahmanical system. They offered a refreshing, egalitarian, and more accessible spiritual alternative, leading to a profound transformation of Indian society and culture.
2. Evaluate the contributions of Jainism and Buddhism to Indian culture in the fields of language and literature, art and architecture, and social reform.
Answer:
Jainism and Buddhism, emerging as significant religious movements in the 6th century BCE, profoundly influenced various facets of Indian culture. Their contributions extended beyond spiritual doctrines to enrich language, literature, art, architecture, and social structures.
I. Language and Literature:
Prakrit and Pali: Both religions played a pivotal role in promoting vernacular languages.
Jainism: Primarily used Prakrit and its regional variants (like Ardhamagadhi, Maharashtri Prakrit) for their sacred texts (Agamas) and commentaries. This elevated Prakrit from a spoken dialect to a literary language and contributed to its development.
Buddhism: Used Pali (a Middle Indo-Aryan language) for its Tripitakas (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma Pitaka). This made Buddhist teachings accessible to the masses, fostering literacy and the development of Pali as an important literary and religious language.
Development of Canonical Literature: The compilation of extensive canonical texts in Pali and Prakrit laid the foundation for vast bodies of religious literature, including philosophical treatises, monastic rules, and narratives.
Secular Literature: The storytelling traditions embedded in Jataka tales (Buddhist) and various Jain narratives influenced later Indian literature, providing moral fables and narrative structures.
II. Art and Architecture:
Stupas: Buddhism is credited with the development of the Stupa, a hemispherical mound containing relics of the Buddha or eminent monks, serving as a focal point for veneration and meditation. Examples include Sanchi, Bharhut, and Amaravati.
Chaityas and Viharas:
Chaityas: These were rock-cut prayer halls or assembly halls, often featuring a stupa at one end. Famous examples include Karle, Ajanta, and Bhaja caves.
Viharas: These were monastic residences or monasteries, often carved into rock faces or built as multi-storied structures. They provided living quarters for monks and nuns and served as centers of learning.
Cave Architecture: Both traditions heavily contributed to rock-cut architecture. Jain caves (e.g., Udayagiri-Khandagiri in Odisha, Sittanavasal in Tamil Nadu) and Buddhist caves (e.g., Ajanta, Ellora, Elephanta) showcase remarkable skill in carving intricate facades, sculptures, and murals directly from rock.
Sculpture:
Buddhist Sculpture: Witnessed the evolution of the Buddha image. The Gandhara (Greco-Roman influence) and Mathura (indigenous style) schools of art produced iconic Buddha and Bodhisattva sculptures.
Jain Sculpture: Depicted Tirthankaras in meditating postures (Kayotsarga or Padmasana), often nude. Colossal monolithic statues like the Gommateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola are iconic Jain contributions.
Temple Architecture: While early structures were primarily monasteries and stupas, both traditions later contributed to structural temple architecture, particularly evident in the Dilwara Temples (Jain) and various Buddhist structural temples.
III. Social Reform:
Challenge to the Varna System: Both Jainism and Buddhism strongly condemned the rigid, birth-based Varna system and Brahmanical supremacy. They emphasized equality based on conduct (Karma) rather than birth. They welcomed people from all social strata into their Sanghas and communities, offering a path to salvation open to all. This provided a much-needed alternative for the lower varnas and contributed to social mobility.
Emphasis on Ahimsa and its Impact:
The strong emphasis on non-violence, particularly in Jainism, influenced society towards a more compassionate outlook. It fostered vegetarianism and promoted ethical conduct in various aspects of life.
It also indirectly benefited the trading community (Vaishyas) as animal sacrifices, which affected cattle wealth, were opposed. This further enhanced the economic role and social standing of the Vaishyas.
Improved Status of Women (Initially in Buddhism): While the position of women generally declined in the Later Vedic period, Buddhism initially offered women greater agency by allowing them to join the Sangha as bhikkhunis (nuns), though with certain restrictions. Jainism also had a significant order of nuns. This provided an alternative spiritual and social life for women who sought it.
Rise of Urban Centers and Trade: By advocating against animal sacrifices (which preserved cattle vital for agriculture and trade) and by attracting mercantile communities, these religions indirectly supported the growth of urban centers and a monetized economy, fostering a more dynamic society.
In conclusion, the religious movements of the 6th century BCE, particularly Jainism and Buddhism, were not merely spiritual revolutions but also powerful cultural forces. They democratized spiritual pursuits, challenged social inequalities, fostered the growth of vernacular languages, and left an indelible mark on Indian art and architecture, profoundly shaping the subcontinent's rich cultural heritage.
