Perceptions of Society through the Eyes of Travellers (10th to 17th Centuries)
a) Al-Biruni (11th Century)
Background: Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni was a Persian polymath who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni during his invasions of India in the early 11th century. He spent years in India, learning Sanskrit, studying religious and philosophical texts, and engaging with Brahmanical scholars. His magnum opus, Kitab-ul-Hind (or Tarikh al-Hind), is a remarkable attempt to understand Indian society, culture, and science.
Perceptions of Society:
The Caste System (Varna and Jati):
Detailed Observation: Al-Biruni provided one of the most detailed and analytical accounts of the Indian caste system from an external perspective. He meticulously described the fourfold varna system (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) based on Vedic texts.
Hierarchical Nature: He noted the strict hierarchy and occupational divisions associated with each varna.
Concept of Purity and Pollution: He was particularly fascinated by the concept of purity and pollution, which dictated social interactions, especially concerning food and marriage. He observed that each caste, when eating together, had to form a separate group.
Antyaja and Untouchables: Al-Biruni also noted the existence of "Antyaja" (people who performed various services and lived outside the four varnas) and "untouchables" (like Chandalas), whom he described as engaged in "dirty work." He noted their degraded status and the social ostracism they faced.
Comparison with Other Societies: Al-Biruni attempted to understand the caste system by drawing parallels with social divisions in ancient Persia (knights, monks, physicians/scientists, peasants/artisans), suggesting that social stratification was not unique to India. However, he also contrasted it with the Islamic concept of equality among all men, which he believed differed only in piety.
Critique: While objective in his description, Al-Biruni implicitly disapproved of the rigid exclusion and the notion of untouchability, finding it contrary to the laws of nature which allow impure things to become pure again.
Hindu Religious and Philosophical Traditions:
Scholarly Approach: Unlike many conquerors, Al-Biruni approached Indian religion and philosophy with genuine intellectual curiosity. He studied Sanskrit texts, including the Vedas, Puranas, and philosophical schools.
Monotheism of the Educated: He noted that educated Hindus believed in a monotheistic God (Ishvara), contrasting it with the polytheistic practices of the common people.
Difference and Isolation: He highlighted the deep differences between Hindu and Muslim ways of life, noting that Hindus were somewhat insular and self-contained, preferring not to share their knowledge with outsiders. He felt that the Hindus "differ from us in all their usages and customs" and were somewhat isolated due to their belief in the superiority of their traditions.
Science and Knowledge:
Admiration for Indian Science: Al-Biruni admired Indian achievements in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. He translated several Sanskrit scientific texts into Arabic.
Critique of Scientific Method: Despite his admiration, he also critiqued the way Indian scientific texts were written, often mixing scientific concepts with religious or mythological narratives, which he found less systematic than Greek or Arabic scholarship.
Absence of Strong Central Authority (in his observation): He primarily observed northern India, which was politically fragmented after the decline of strong empires. His accounts implicitly suggest a society governed by local rulers and religious norms rather than a centralized imperial structure.
Overall Perspective: Al-Biruni's account is remarkably objective for its time. He adopted a systematic, almost anthropological, approach, often starting with a question, explaining it based on Sanskrit traditions, and then comparing it with other cultures. His major challenge was the ethnocentricity of the people he studied and his own occasional difficulty in fully reconciling their worldview with his Islamic and scientific background.
b) Ibn Battuta (14th Century)
Background: Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan traveler who arrived in India in 1333 CE during the reign of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq of the Delhi Sultanate. He spent about eight years in India, serving as a qazi (judge) in Delhi, which gave him unique access to the court, administrative practices, and the lives of both the elite and common people. His travelogue, Rihla, provides a vibrant, firsthand account of 14th-century India.
Perceptions of Society:
Vibrant Urban Life and Economy:
Prosperous Cities: Ibn Battuta was greatly impressed by the prosperity and bustling nature of Indian cities, particularly Delhi and Daulatabad. He described them as densely populated, rich, and full of opportunities.
Bustling Markets: He vividly described the bazaars (markets) as not just centers of economic transactions but also hubs of social and cultural activity, with mosques, temples, and entertainment.
Thriving Trade: He noted the strong network of trade and commerce, particularly the coastal trade in the Malabar region (e.g., Calicut, Kollam), where ships from China and Persia arrived to trade in spices (pepper), textiles (muslin, silk, cotton), and other goods. He observed that Indian manufactures were in high demand internationally.
Agricultural Abundance: He mentioned the extreme fertility of the land, allowing for two to three harvests a year (e.g., rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton), which contributed significantly to urban wealth.
Social Customs and Practices:
Caste System: While not as analytical as Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta noted the presence of the caste system and the social divisions it entailed.
Sati: He provided a firsthand account of the practice of sati (widow immolation), which he found shocking. His detailed description highlights the grim reality of this practice.
Slavery: He observed the prevalence of slavery in India, particularly domestic slavery, and described slave markets. He himself purchased slaves during his travels.
Position of Women: His observations suggest that women generally held a subordinate position, though he also noted instances of some women having significant influence.
Food and Lifestyle: He provided detailed descriptions of food, clothing, and daily life, including consumption of paan (betel nut) and various fruits and dishes.
The Sultanate and Administration:
Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Ibn Battuta provides a complex and often contradictory portrait of the Sultan, describing him as both generous and cruel, dispensing immense wealth and meting out harsh punishments (e.g., public executions, dismemberment) indiscriminately.
Justice System: He observed a system where justice could be swift and brutal, with severe penalties for even minor offenses. His own experience as a qazi reflects the judicial process.
Postal System: He was particularly impressed by the efficiency of the imperial postal system (dawa for horse couriers, dawa for foot couriers), which allowed rapid communication across the vast empire.
Religious Life:
Islamic Dominance: As a devout Muslim, he focused on the lives of Muslim communities, Sufi saints, and the functioning of mosques and madrasas. He noted the presence of learned Islamic scholars and judges.
Hinduism: He acknowledged the presence of Hindus and their temples but did not delve deeply into Hindu religious practices or philosophy, unlike Al-Biruni. He mentions Jogis (yogis) as street magicians.
Overall Perspective: Ibn Battuta's account is a travelogue of personal experiences and observations, often reflecting his amazement, shock, or admiration. His detailed descriptions of the economic vibrancy, urban centers, and social customs, combined with his unique access to the Sultan's court, make his Rihla an invaluable source for understanding 14th-century India, particularly the Delhi Sultanate.
c) Francois Bernier (17th Century)
Background: Francois Bernier was a French physician and philosopher who travelled to India in the mid-17th century, arriving around 1656 CE. He spent 12 years in the Mughal Empire, serving as a physician to Prince Dara Shikoh and later to Aurangzeb's court. His book, Travels in the Mogul Empire, is a critical commentary on Mughal India, often drawing comparisons with contemporary Europe.
Perceptions of Society:
Question of Landownership and its Consequences (Bernier's Central Thesis):
Crown Ownership: Bernier argued that one of the fundamental differences between India and Europe was the absence of private ownership of land in India. He believed that the Mughal emperor was the sole owner of all land, which he distributed among his nobles as 'jagirs' (revenue assignments).
Harmful Effects: He contended that this system had disastrous consequences:
Lack of Investment: Since nobles held jagirs temporarily and could not pass them to their children, they had no incentive to invest in long-term improvement of the land.
Exploitation of Peasantry: This led to the excessive exploitation of the peasantry by jagirdars, who extracted maximum revenue without caring for the land or the well-being of the cultivators. Peasants were often impoverished, living in despair, and abandoning their lands.
Declining Agriculture: He described fields as "overspread with bushes" and full of "pestilential marshes," reflecting a perceived decline in agriculture.
"No Middle State": Bernier famously asserted that there was "no middle state" in India. He saw society as polarized between a small, excessively rich, and powerful ruling class (nobles, jagirdars) and the undifferentiated masses of impoverished peasants and artisans. This contrasted sharply with the emerging middle class in Europe.
Critique of Bernier's Thesis: Modern historians largely challenge Bernier's "crown ownership" thesis. Mughal documents do not support sole state ownership; land revenue was seen as a tax on the crop, not rent. The jagirdari system was complex, and while exploitation existed, it wasn't due to absolute lack of private property. Bernier's view was influenced by his European understanding of property rights and served to frame India as an "Oriental Despotism."
Mughal Court and Nobility:
Extravagant Riches: He was struck by the immense wealth, pomp, and grandeur of the Mughal court and the opulent lifestyle of the nobles.
Patronage and Dependence: He observed that the nobility lived in lavish style but were entirely dependent on the emperor's favour. They lived in constant fear of losing their jagirs or wealth, which could be confiscated at any time. This led to a nomadic life for nobles who moved frequently with the court.
Despotism: Bernier portrayed the Mughal ruler as an "absolute despot" with unlimited power over his subjects, contrasting it with the more constrained monarchies in Europe.
Urban Life and Artisans:
Prosperous Cities (Despite his general critique): Despite his overall critical assessment, Bernier did acknowledge bustling markets and the presence of a prosperous merchant community engaged in long-distance trade. He noted that vast quantities of precious metals flowed into India in exchange for its manufactures.
Artisans' Condition: He believed that artisans lacked incentive to improve their crafts because profits were largely appropriated by the state or nobles, leading to a perceived decline in manufactures. However, he also noted the high demand for Indian textiles in Europe, suggesting a more complex reality.
Social Customs:
Sati: Like Ibn Battuta, Bernier also recorded the practice of sati, viewing it as barbaric.
Women: He generally held a prejudiced view of the status of women, often comparing them unfavorably to European women and focusing on what he perceived as their restricted lives, largely ignoring the influence of women like Jahanara Begum.
Caste System and Religious Practices: He observed the caste system and various religious practices, but his focus was more on the political and economic structure.
Overall Perspective: Bernier's account is a critical and comparative study, often aimed at instructing European audiences about the nature of the "Orient." While valuable for its detailed observations, his analysis is heavily colored by his European biases, particularly concerning private property and political freedom. He tended to generalize and draw sweeping conclusions based on limited observations, sometimes overlooking the complexities and nuances of Indian society. His writings significantly influenced European perceptions of India as a despotic and stagnant society, contributing to later theories of "Oriental Despotism" and the "Asiatic Mode of Production" (by Montesquieu and Marx, respectively).
