THE RISE OF EMPIRES : Class 7 : Social Science
SUMMARY –
Background
After the decline of the Mauryan Empire (around 200 BCE), many small kingdoms and dynasties rose.
By the 3rd–4th century CE, larger empires re-emerged in India.
The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century CE)
Founded by Chandragupta I around 320 CE.
Successors: Samudragupta (the "Napoleon of India") and Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).
Period known as the Golden Age of India due to developments in art, science, mathematics, literature, and trade.
Famous scholars: Aryabhata (astronomy, mathematics), Kalidasa (literature), Varahamihira.
Administration under Guptas
Strong central authority but local administration given to governors.
Land grants were common, leading to growth of feudalism.
Economy and Trade
Agriculture was the main occupation.
Trade flourished with Roman Empire and Southeast Asia.
Gold coins of Gupta kings show prosperity.
Society and Culture
Hinduism became more prominent, though Buddhism and Jainism also continued.
Temples built for the first time in stone (e.g., Dashavatara temple, Deogarh).
Sanskrit literature flourished.
Decline of Guptas
Invasions by the Hunas, internal weaknesses, and loss of trade routes weakened the empire by 6th century CE.
Other Regional Empires
Vakatakas in Deccan, Pallavas in Tamil Nadu, Chalukyas in Karnataka, Rashtrakutas later.
Each contributed to art, architecture, and regional culture.
📌 This chapter mainly shows how large empires like the Guptas unified India politically, economically, and culturally, and why they are remembered as golden periods.
SHORT QUESTION–ANSWERS
1. Who was the founder of the Gupta Empire?
Chandragupta I founded the Gupta Empire around 320 CE.
2. Who is called the “Napoleon of India”? Why?
Samudragupta is called the Napoleon of India because of his military conquests and vast expansion of the empire.
3. Which Gupta ruler was known as Vikramaditya?
Chandragupta II was called Vikramaditya.
4. Why is the Gupta period called the “Golden Age of India”?
Because it saw great progress in literature, science, art, mathematics, and trade.
5. Name two famous scholars of the Gupta period.
Aryabhata (astronomy & mathematics) and Kalidasa (literature).
6. Which important mathematical concept was introduced during the Gupta period?
The concept of zero and decimal system.
7. What was the main source of revenue for the Gupta Empire?
Land tax collected from farmers.
8. Which foreign power invaded the Gupta Empire?
The Hunas invaded the Gupta Empire in the 5th–6th century CE.
9. Which Gupta ruler issued the most gold coins?
Samudragupta.
10. Name a famous temple built in the Gupta period.
Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh.
11. What language and literature flourished during Gupta rule?
Sanskrit literature flourished with works of Kalidasa and others.
12. Who wrote the play Abhijnanashakuntalam?
Kalidasa.
13. Which Gupta ruler was known for his patronage of art and literature?
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).
14. Who was Aryabhata?
Aryabhata was a mathematician and astronomer who wrote Aryabhatiya.
15. What was the capital of the Gupta Empire?
Initially Pataliputra; later Ujjain became important under Chandragupta II.
16. Name two important trade items of the Gupta period.
Spices and textiles.
17. What role did land grants play during Gupta rule?
They were given to Brahmins and officials, leading to feudalism.
18. Who was Fa-Hien and what did he observe?
Fa-Hien was a Chinese traveler who visited India during Chandragupta II’s reign and noted prosperity and Buddhism.
19. Which religion became more prominent during the Gupta age?
Hinduism became more prominent, though Buddhism and Jainism continued.
20. Name one scientific discovery of Aryabhata.
He explained that the earth rotates on its own axis.
21. What kind of coins were issued by Gupta rulers?
Gold, silver, and copper coins with images of kings and deities.
22. Who were the Hunas?
The Hunas were Central Asian invaders who weakened the Gupta Empire.
23. Mention one reason for the decline of the Gupta Empire.
Invasions by Hunas and weakening of central authority.
24. Who succeeded Chandragupta I?
Samudragupta.
25. What is the contribution of Varahamihira?
Varahamihira was an astronomer and astrologer who wrote Brihatsamhita.
26. Which famous iron pillar was built during Gupta period?
The Iron Pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi), known for not rusting.
27. What was the main occupation of people in Gupta times?
Agriculture.
28. Which dynasty ruled in the Deccan during the Gupta period?
The Vakatakas.
29. Name two famous regional kingdoms that rose after Guptas.
Pallavas in Tamil Nadu and Chalukyas in Karnataka.
30. Which Gupta ruler defeated the Shakas?
Chandragupta II defeated the Shakas.
31. Which university became famous in Gupta period?
Nalanda University.
32. What was the role of guilds?
Guilds were associations of merchants and artisans that controlled trade and crafts.
33. What did Kalidasa’s works mostly deal with?
His plays and poems dealt with love, nature, and social life.
34. How did Guptas encourage art?
They built temples, supported painters and sculptors, and encouraged literature.
35. Name two features of Gupta administration.
Strong central authority and local self-administration in villages.
36. What were Gupta temples mostly made of?
Stone and brick.
37. Which traveler described India as a land of prosperity during Guptas?
Fa-Hien.
38. Which Gupta king performed the Ashvamedha Yajna?
Samudragupta.
39. How did trade expand under the Guptas?
Through silk route and seaports connecting India with Rome and Southeast Asia.
40. Why is the Gupta Empire important in Indian history?
It unified India politically, economically, and culturally, and is remembered as a Golden Age.
LONG QUESTION–ANSWERS
Q1. Describe the foundation of the Gupta Empire.
Answer:
The Gupta Empire was founded by Chandragupta I around 320 CE. He expanded his territory through marriage alliances and military strength. By controlling Magadha, Prayaga, and Saketa, he laid the foundation of a strong empire. His successors, especially Samudragupta and Chandragupta II, expanded the empire further. The Guptas brought political unity and stability in northern India, which helped in the growth of economy, culture, and learning.
Q2. Why is Samudragupta known as the “Napoleon of India”?
Answer:
Samudragupta earned the title “Napoleon of India” due to his extensive military campaigns and conquests. He defeated many rulers in North India, annexed their kingdoms, and made others pay tribute. He also carried out expeditions in South India. His empire extended from the Himalayas to central India. His conquests were recorded in the Prayaga Prashasti, composed by his court poet Harisena. His military achievements show his skill, courage, and political vision.
Q3. Discuss the role of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) in strengthening the Gupta Empire.
Answer:
Chandragupta II, also called Vikramaditya, ruled after Samudragupta and further expanded the empire. He defeated the Shakas in western India, gaining control of Gujarat and Ujjain, which improved trade with the west. His court became famous for the “Nine Gems,” including Kalidasa and Amarasimha. During his reign, the empire prospered economically and culturally. The Chinese traveler Fa-Hien visited India and described peace, prosperity, and flourishing Buddhism under his rule.
Q4. Why is the Gupta period called the Golden Age of India?
Answer:
The Gupta period is called the Golden Age because of remarkable achievements in art, literature, science, mathematics, and trade. Sanskrit literature flourished with works of Kalidasa and others. In science, Aryabhata and Varahamihira made great contributions. Magnificent temples like the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh were built. Trade expanded with Rome and Southeast Asia, and gold coins reflected prosperity. Peace, stability, and patronage of learning made this era a golden chapter in Indian history.
Q5. Describe the main features of Gupta administration.
Answer:
The Gupta rulers had a strong central authority headed by the king, who was considered divine. The empire was divided into provinces called Bhuktis, governed by officials. Local administration was strong, with village assemblies managing day-to-day affairs. Land grants to officials and Brahmins became common. The army protected the empire, but governors enjoyed autonomy. This administrative system provided stability but later contributed to feudalism and decentralisation.
Q6. Explain the contributions of the Gupta period to mathematics and astronomy.
Answer:
The Gupta period made revolutionary contributions to mathematics and astronomy. Aryabhata introduced the concept of zero, the decimal system, and explained that the Earth rotates on its axis. He also calculated the length of the solar year. Varahamihira, another astronomer, wrote the Brihatsamhita, a comprehensive text on astronomy, astrology, and natural sciences. These discoveries influenced later scholars in India and abroad, making the Gupta period a turning point in science.
Q7. What role did art and architecture play in Gupta culture?
Answer:
Gupta art and architecture reflected religious devotion, creativity, and craftsmanship. The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh is one of the earliest stone temples with beautiful carvings. The Guptas built brick and stone temples dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi. Sculptures at Sarnath and Ajanta paintings flourished during this period. The Iron Pillar at Mehrauli is another achievement, showing advanced metallurgy. Gupta art was simple, elegant, and spiritual, influencing later Indian styles.
Q8. What role did Sanskrit literature play during the Gupta period?
Answer:
Sanskrit literature reached its peak during the Gupta age. Kalidasa composed immortal works like Abhijnanashakuntalam and Meghaduta. His plays combined beauty of language with human emotions. Other scholars like Amarasimha wrote lexicons, while Vishnu Sharma composed Panchatantra stories. Religious texts like the Puranas were compiled. This literature not only reflected Indian culture but also influenced Southeast Asia, marking a golden phase in classical Indian writing.
Q9. Who was Fa-Hien and what did his accounts tell us about India?
Answer:
Fa-Hien was a Chinese Buddhist traveller who visited India during Chandragupta II’s reign. He described India as a prosperous land with peace and safety. He saw flourishing Buddhist monasteries and noted that Hinduism was dominant. He mentioned that people were free from unnecessary taxes, and punishments were not harsh. His accounts provide valuable evidence of Indian society, religion, and economy in the Gupta period.
Q10. Explain the role of trade and commerce in Gupta prosperity.
Answer:
Trade and commerce were crucial for Gupta prosperity. India exported textiles, spices, ivory, and gems to Rome and Southeast Asia. Gujarat and Ujjain became major trading centres, while ports like Tamralipti connected India with other countries. The silk route was used for trade with Central Asia. The Guptas issued gold coins showing wealth. Guilds of traders managed internal trade. Thus, trade made the empire rich and famous abroad.
Q11. Describe the condition of religion in Gupta India.
Answer:
Religion in Gupta India was marked by tolerance and variety. Hinduism became more prominent with the rise of temple worship of Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi. Elaborate rituals and Puranic traditions developed. Buddhism also flourished, especially in monasteries visited by Fa-Hien. Jainism continued in western India. This period saw the growth of Bhakti movement ideas. Thus, Gupta India reflected a rich and diverse religious life.
Q12. What led to the decline of the Gupta Empire?
Answer:
Several reasons caused the decline of the Gupta Empire. Invasions by the Hunas weakened the empire. Internal revolts and weak successors failed to control provinces. The growing practice of land grants reduced state revenue. Trade declined, weakening the economy. By the 6th century CE, the empire broke into smaller kingdoms, ending the unity established by the Guptas.
Q13. Discuss the achievements of Aryabhata.
Answer:
Aryabhata was one of the greatest scientists of Gupta age. He wrote the Aryabhatiya, introducing concepts like zero and the decimal system. He explained that the Earth rotates on its own axis and calculated the length of the solar year. His theories on eclipses and planetary motion were revolutionary. Aryabhata’s contributions influenced scholars in India and the Islamic world, making him a pioneer of mathematics and astronomy.
Q14. What do Gupta coins tell us about their rule?
Answer:
Gupta coins, especially gold coins, provide evidence of their prosperity and art. The coins often depicted kings performing rituals like the Ashvamedha Yajna or playing musical instruments. They also bore images of Hindu deities like Lakshmi and Vishnu. The inscriptions on coins reflect the wealth and power of the empire. These coins also served as proof of flourishing trade and the importance of religion in Gupta society.
Q15. Explain the importance of Nalanda University in Gupta India.
Answer:
Nalanda University became one of the most famous centres of learning during the Gupta period. Scholars from India and abroad studied Buddhist philosophy, medicine, astronomy, and arts. It had thousands of students and teachers. The university was supported by royal patronage and became a symbol of India’s intellectual achievements. Nalanda’s fame attracted Chinese pilgrims like Xuanzang in later centuries.
Q16. How did the Guptas promote temple architecture?
Answer:
The Guptas built the first stone and brick temples dedicated to Hindu gods. The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh is a fine example with beautiful carvings of Vishnu’s incarnations. Small shrines with flat roofs evolved into more complex structures with shikharas. These temples became centres of culture and worship. This was the beginning of the great temple-building tradition in India.
Q17. Describe the role of women in Gupta society.
Answer:
Women in Gupta society had limited rights compared to men. Some women received education, especially in wealthy families. They took part in religious ceremonies and cultural life. Marriage was important, and child marriage started becoming common. Women like Prabhavati Gupta, a Vakataka queen, exercised political power. Overall, women’s role was important but restricted by patriarchal norms.
Q18. What was the significance of the Iron Pillar of Delhi?
Answer:
The Iron Pillar at Mehrauli, near Delhi, is a remarkable achievement of Gupta metallurgy. It was built during Chandragupta II’s reign. The pillar has not rusted for over 1,500 years, showing advanced knowledge of iron casting. It also has inscriptions praising the king. The pillar is a symbol of technological skill and scientific knowledge of Gupta India.
Q19. How did the Guptas support education?
Answer:
The Guptas supported education by encouraging universities like Nalanda and promoting Sanskrit learning. Brahmin scholars were given land grants to establish schools. Subjects like astronomy, mathematics, medicine, grammar, and philosophy were taught. Students from other countries came to study in India. This system made India a global centre of learning during the Gupta age.
Q20. Compare the Guptas with the Mauryas.
Answer:
Both empires unified large parts of India, but their methods were different. Mauryas under Ashoka had a strong centralised bureaucracy, while Guptas allowed local self-government. Mauryas promoted Buddhism, while Guptas revived Hinduism. Economically, both prospered through agriculture and trade, but Gupta coins reflect more wealth. Culturally, the Guptas achieved more in literature and science, hence their period is called the Golden Age.
Q21. What was the role of guilds in Gupta economy?
Answer:
Guilds were associations of traders and artisans that controlled production and trade. They fixed prices, ensured quality, and sometimes acted like banks, lending money. Guilds of weavers, goldsmiths, and merchants flourished in Gupta India. They encouraged craft specialization and helped expand internal and external trade. Thus, guilds played a key role in economic prosperity.
Q22. Explain the importance of Prayaga Prashasti.
Answer:
The Prayaga Prashasti is an inscription composed by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta. It describes the conquests and achievements of the king. It gives details of Samudragupta’s military campaigns and political vision. It is an important historical source that helps historians understand the Gupta Empire’s extent, administration, and military power.
Q23. What role did the Hunas play in Indian history?
Answer:
The Hunas were Central Asian tribes who invaded India during the 5th–6th centuries CE. Their invasions weakened the Gupta Empire. They caused destruction, disrupted trade, and reduced revenue. Though they were later defeated, their attacks marked the beginning of the decline of the Gupta power and rise of regional kingdoms.
Q24. How did agriculture support the Gupta Empire?
Answer:
Agriculture was the backbone of Gupta economy. Farmers grew rice, wheat, sugarcane, and cotton. Irrigation improved productivity. Land tax was the main source of revenue for the state. Surplus food supported towns, trade, and artisans. Thus, agriculture provided economic stability and funded the empire’s prosperity.
Q25. Discuss the role of regional kingdoms after the Guptas.
Answer:
After the decline of the Guptas, regional kingdoms like the Vakatakas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas rose. Each developed unique art, architecture, and culture. The Pallavas built temples at Mahabalipuram. The Chalukyas promoted art in Karnataka. These kingdoms carried forward the legacy of the Guptas and prepared the ground for medieval Indian history.
Q26. What impact did Gupta rule have on Indian society?
Answer:
Gupta society was largely agrarian, with caste system becoming stronger. Brahmins enjoyed privileges due to land grants. Women had limited rights, though some held influence. Religion played a major role in shaping society. Education, art, and literature flourished, showing a rich cultural life. Social harmony and prosperity marked the period.
Q27. How did the Guptas revive Hinduism?
Answer:
The Guptas promoted Hinduism by building temples and supporting Brahmins with land grants. Worship of Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi became common. Religious texts like Puranas were compiled. Gupta coins and inscriptions show Hindu deities. However, they tolerated other religions like Buddhism and Jainism. This revival strengthened Hindu traditions in India.
Q28. Describe the economic prosperity of Gupta India.
Answer:
Gupta India was economically prosperous due to agriculture, trade, and crafts. Farmers produced surplus food, while artisans made textiles and metal goods. India traded with Rome, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. Ports like Tamralipti and Ujjain thrived. Gold coins reflect wealth and flourishing economy. The prosperity supported cultural growth and political stability.
Q29. What lessons can we learn from the Gupta Empire?
Answer:
The Gupta Empire teaches us that peace, prosperity, and patronage of learning can create a golden age. Strong rulers like Samudragupta and Chandragupta II show the importance of leadership. Encouraging science, art, and education leads to long-lasting contributions. At the same time, over-dependence on land grants and weak successors can cause decline.
Q30. Why is the Gupta period remembered as an important phase in Indian history?
Answer:
The Gupta period is remembered because it brought political unity, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements. It is called the Golden Age for its contributions to mathematics, astronomy, art, architecture, and literature. The Guptas revived Hinduism but respected other faiths. Their achievements left a lasting influence on India and the world.
MCQS CHOOSE THE CORRECT OPTION:
Q1. Who was the founder of the Gupta Empire?
a) Ashoka
b) Chandragupta I
c) Samudragupta
d) Harsha
👉 Answer: b) Chandragupta I
Q2. Chandragupta I started his rule around:
a) 250 CE
b) 320 CE
c) 400 CE
d) 600 CE
👉 Answer: b) 320 CE
Q3. Which ruler is called the “Napoleon of India”?
a) Chandragupta I
b) Samudragupta
c) Chandragupta II
d) Harsha
👉 Answer: b) Samudragupta
Q4. The Prayaga Prashasti was composed by:
a) Banabhatta
b) Kalidasa
c) Harisena
d) Fa-Hien
👉 Answer: c) Harisena
Q5. Chandragupta II was also known as:
a) Skandagupta
b) Ashvamedhagupta
c) Vikramaditya
d) Harshavardhana
👉 Answer: c) Vikramaditya
Q6. Which Chinese traveler visited India during Chandragupta II’s reign?
a) Xuanzang
b) Fa-Hien
c) Ibn Battuta
d) Marco Polo
👉 Answer: b) Fa-Hien
Q7. The Gupta period is called the:
a) Silver Age
b) Bronze Age
c) Golden Age
d) Dark Age
👉 Answer: c) Golden Age
Q8. Which Gupta ruler performed the Ashvamedha Yajna?
a) Samudragupta
b) Chandragupta II
c) Skandagupta
d) Chandragupta I
👉 Answer: a) Samudragupta
Q9. The Iron Pillar of Delhi belongs to which period?
a) Mauryan
b) Gupta
c) Mughal
d) Chola
👉 Answer: b) Gupta
Q10. The Gupta Empire’s main source of revenue was:
a) Salt tax
b) Land revenue
c) Foreign trade tax
d) Slave tax
👉 Answer: b) Land revenue
Q11. Who wrote Abhijnanashakuntalam?
a) Vishnu Sharma
b) Banabhatta
c) Kalidasa
d) Aryabhata
👉 Answer: c) Kalidasa
Q12. Which Gupta ruler defeated the Shakas?
a) Samudragupta
b) Chandragupta II
c) Skandagupta
d) Kumaragupta
👉 Answer: b) Chandragupta II
Q13. Which university became famous during Gupta rule?
a) Takshashila
b) Nalanda
c) Vikramshila
d) Vallabhi
👉 Answer: b) Nalanda
Q14. Who was the famous mathematician and astronomer of the Gupta period?
a) Panini
b) Aryabhata
c) Nagarjuna
d) Patanjali
👉 Answer: b) Aryabhata
Q15. Aryabhata’s famous book was:
a) Brihatsamhita
b) Aryabhatiya
c) Meghaduta
d) Arthashastra
👉 Answer: b) Aryabhatiya
Q16. Who wrote the Brihatsamhita?
a) Aryabhata
b) Varahamihira
c) Kalidasa
d) Banabhatta
👉 Answer: b) Varahamihira
Q17. The Guptas issued mainly which type of coins?
a) Silver
b) Copper
c) Gold
d) Iron
👉 Answer: c) Gold
Q18. Which religion became more prominent during Gupta rule?
a) Buddhism
b) Jainism
c) Hinduism
d) Islam
👉 Answer: c) Hinduism
Q19. Who was Prabhavati Gupta?
a) Daughter of Samudragupta
b) Daughter of Chandragupta II
c) Wife of Aryabhata
d) Sister of Kalidasa
👉 Answer: b) Daughter of Chandragupta II
Q20. The Guptas encouraged which type of administration at the village level?
a) Military rule
b) Democratic assemblies
c) Monarchy only
d) Bureaucratic officers
👉 Answer: b) Democratic assemblies
Q21. Which invaders contributed to the fall of the Gupta Empire?
a) Greeks
b) Kushanas
c) Hunas
d) Mongols
👉 Answer: c) Hunas
Q22. The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh was built during the:
a) Mauryan period
b) Gupta period
c) Mughal period
d) Chola period
👉 Answer: b) Gupta period
Q23. The Guptas controlled which important port for trade?
a) Puhar
b) Tamralipti
c) Muziris
d) Bharuch
👉 Answer: b) Tamralipti
Q24. Which Gupta ruler is associated with the Nine Gems (Navratnas)?
a) Samudragupta
b) Chandragupta II
c) Skandagupta
d) Kumaragupta
👉 Answer: b) Chandragupta II
Q25. Which language flourished most under the Guptas?
a) Prakrit
b) Pali
c) Sanskrit
d) Persian
👉 Answer: c) Sanskrit
Q26. The Panchatantra stories were composed by:
a) Kalidasa
b) Vishnu Sharma
c) Banabhatta
d) Aryabhata
👉 Answer: b) Vishnu Sharma
Q27. What was the chief occupation of people in Gupta India?
a) Trade
b) Industry
c) Agriculture
d) Military service
👉 Answer: c) Agriculture
Q28. Who wrote the Prayaga Prashasti inscription?
a) Fa-Hien
b) Harisena
c) Kalidasa
d) Aryabhata
👉 Answer: b) Harisena
Q29. Which ruler succeeded Chandragupta I?
a) Chandragupta II
b) Skandagupta
c) Samudragupta
d) Kumaragupta
👉 Answer: c) Samudragupta
Q30. Which Gupta king faced the Huna invasions?
a) Chandragupta I
b) Chandragupta II
c) Skandagupta
d) Samudragupta
👉 Answer: c) Skandagupta
Q31. Which text explains Aryabhata’s theory about Earth’s rotation?
a) Aryabhatiya
b) Ramayana
c) Brihatsamhita
d) Arthashastra
👉 Answer: a) Aryabhatiya
Q32. Which was the main reason for Gupta decline?
a) Over-centralization
b) Weak successors and invasions
c) Conversion to Buddhism
d) Decline of agriculture only
👉 Answer: b) Weak successors and invasions
Q33. The Guptas are especially remembered for achievements in:
a) War
b) Religion
c) Art and Science
d) Politics only
👉 Answer: c) Art and Science
Q34. Who among the following was NOT a member of Chandragupta II’s Nine Gems?
a) Kalidasa
b) Aryabhata
c) Amarasimha
d) Varahamihira
👉 Answer: b) Aryabhata
Q35. The Guptas made land grants mainly to:
a) Soldiers
b) Farmers
c) Brahmins and officials
d) Traders
👉 Answer: c) Brahmins and officials
Q36. Which art form flourished in Ajanta during Gupta rule?
a) Sculpture only
b) Fresco paintings
c) Bronze casting
d) Stone pillars
👉 Answer: b) Fresco paintings
Q37. Which dynasty rose after the decline of the Guptas?
a) Pallavas
b) Cholas
c) Mauryas
d) Mughals
👉 Answer: a) Pallavas
Q38. Which title did Samudragupta assume after his conquests?
a) Ashvamedheshwara
b) Maharajadhiraja
c) Chakravarti
d) Vikramaditya
👉 Answer: b) Maharajadhiraja
Q39. The Guptas encouraged which type of economy?
a) Hunting and gathering
b) Pastoral only
c) Agrarian with flourishing trade
d) Nomadic
👉 Answer: c) Agrarian with flourishing trade
Q40. The Gupta Empire’s decline finally resulted in:
a) Rise of regional kingdoms
b) European invasion
c) Mongol invasion
d) Complete political unity
👉 Answer: a) Rise of regional kingdoms
