NCERT Class 12 History Unit 1: "Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilization,"
Class 12 History (CBSE) - Unit 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilization
I. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. The Harappan script was written from:
a) Left to right
b) Right to left
c) Alternating between left to right and right to left
d) Top to bottom
**Answer:** b) Right to left
2. Which of the following Harappan sites is known for its unique water harvesting system and is divided into three parts?
a) Harappa
b) Mohenjodaro
c) Lothal
d) Dholavira
**Answer:** d) Dholavira
3. The Great Bath was discovered at which of the following Harappan sites?
a) Harappa
b) Mohenjodaro
c) Kalibangan
d) Rakhigarhi
**Answer:** b) Mohenjodaro
4. Which archaeologist was the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) when the Harappan Civilization was officially announced in 1924?
a) Alexander Cunningham
b) R.D. Banerji
c) John Marshall
d) Daya Ram Sahni
**Answer:** c) John Marshall
5. Which of the following materials was NOT typically used for making beads in the Harappan Civilization?
a) Carnelian
b) Steatite
c) Iron
d) Faience
**Answer:** c) Iron
II. Short Answer Questions (3-5 Marks)
1. Describe the distinctive features of the town planning of Mohenjodaro.
Answer:** Mohenjodaro, like other major Harappan cities, exhibited remarkable town planning:
Grid Pattern:** The city was divided into two main parts: the Citadel (smaller, higher, and used for special public purposes) and the Lower Town (larger, lower, and residential). Streets and lanes were laid out in an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
*Planned Drainage System:** One of the most impressive features was the elaborate drainage system. Every house had a bath area connected to street drains. These drains were carefully laid out with a gentle slope and were covered with bricks or stone slabs. This suggests a high degree of planning and a focus on hygiene.
Standardized Bricks:** Buildings were constructed using standardized burnt bricks of a specific ratio (e.g., 1:2:4 for thickness, width, and length), which were consistent across most Harappan sites. This indicates centralized control over production.
*Residential Architecture:** Houses were typically one or two-storeyed, built around a courtyard, with rooms on all sides. Most houses had private bathrooms and some had wells.
2. How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society?
**Answer:** Archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society primarily through two main methods:
Study of Burials:**
Grave Goods:** Differences in the artifacts found with burials can indicate social stratification. For instance, some graves contain pottery and ornaments (like jasper beads, copper mirrors, or shell rings), while others have fewer or no such items.
Construction of Graves:** While some burials were simple pits, the presence of specific structural features or the materials used for lining the pits could also suggest variations in status.
Looking for "Luxuries":**
*Rare and Valuable Materials:** Archaeologists identify "luxuries" as objects made from rare, non-local, or difficult-to-procure materials (e.g., faience, gold, precious stones). The concentration of such artifacts in certain areas or with specific individuals suggests higher social status.
*Complex Technologies:** Objects requiring intricate or specialized manufacturing processes (e.g., small pots of faience or intricate beadwork) are also considered indicators of luxury and thus, socio-economic differences.
*Distribution of Artifacts:** The distribution of these luxury items, whether concentrated in particular settlements or within specific areas of a city (like the Citadel), can reveal disparities in wealth and status.
3. List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan Civilization and discuss how these might have been obtained.1
Answer:** The Harappans utilized a wide variety of raw materials for craft production, which were obtained through different strategies:
Local Materials:**
**Clay:** Abundantly available for pottery and terracotta figurines.
*Wood:** For construction and fuel.
Some Stones:** Easily accessible for tools and basic artefacts.
Materials from Within the Subcontinent:**
Copper:** From the Khetri mines in Rajasthan (ancient Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture). Harappans likely sent expeditions to these areas.
Gold:** From present-day Karnataka.
Carnelian:** From Lothal, Gujarat.
Steatite:** Easily worked soft stone, found in various locations, perhaps also imported from specific quarries.
*Shell:** From coastal settlements like Nageshwar and Balakot, where specialized craft centers for shell objects were established.
Materials from Distant Lands (Trade):**
* **Lapis Lazuli:** From Shortughai in Afghanistan. This bluish stone was highly valued.
* **Tin:** Potentially from Afghanistan or Iran (essential for making bronze).
* **Silver:** Likely from Afghanistan or Iran.
* **Precious Stones:** From Gujarat, Iran, and Afghanistan.
**Methods of Procurement:**
* **Establishing Settlements:** Harappans established specialized settlements (e.g., Nageshwar and Balakot for shell, Shortughai for lapis lazuli) in areas where raw materials were readily available.
* **Sending Expeditions:** They likely sent out expeditions to mineral-rich areas (like Khetri for copper), perhaps involving nomadic groups or specialized traders.
* **Trade Networks:** Extensive trade networks, both terrestrial and maritime, facilitated the exchange of goods. Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia (Meluha in Mesopotamian texts) and Oman is found through seals, weights, and distinctive Harappan pottery.
4. What are the key features of Harappan agriculture?
**Answer:** Agriculture was the backbone of the Harappan economy. Key features include:
* **Crop Diversity:** Harappans cultivated a variety of crops including wheat, barley, lentils, chickpea, sesame, and mustard. Rice cultivation evidence has been found at Lothal.
* **Agricultural Technology:**
* **Plough:** Evidence of ploughed fields has been found at Kalibangan, indicating the use of a plough. Terracotta models of ploughs have also been discovered in sites like Banawali.
* **Irrigation:** While direct evidence of canals is rare (except for Shortughai), Harappans likely relied on floodplains of rivers for irrigation and perhaps dug wells. Water reservoirs have been found at Dholavira, indicating advanced water management for agriculture.
* **Animal Husbandry:** They domesticated a wide range of animals including cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes, and pigs. Evidence also suggests the rearing of fowls.
* **Seasonal Sowing:** Crops were likely sown in autumn (November) and harvested in spring (March-April), utilizing the fertile floodplains after the annual floods.
III. Long Answer Questions (8 Marks)
1. Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past, with special reference to the Harappan Civilization.
**Answer:** Archaeologists play a crucial role in reconstructing the past, especially for civilizations like the Harappan, which had an undeciphered script. Their methods involve:
* **Excavation and Stratigraphy:** Archaeologists systematically excavate sites, digging through different layers (strata) of soil. Each layer represents a different period, allowing them to establish a chronological sequence of artifacts and structures. The deeper the layer, the older the remains. This helps in understanding how settlements grew and changed over time.
*Analysis of Artifacts:**
Pottery:** Different types of pottery (shape, material, decoration) can indicate changes in cultural practices and chronology.
*Tools and Implements:** Stone tools, copper and bronze artefacts provide insights into technology, craftsmanship, and economic activities.
*Ornaments:** Beads, bangles, and pendants reveal artistic styles, trade networks, and social hierarchies.
*Seals and Sealings:** Harappan seals are unique. While their script is undeciphered, the images on them (animals, human-like figures) provide clues about religious beliefs, political symbols, and trade. Sealings (impressions of seals on clay) indicate communication and ownership.
*Weights and Measures:** Standardized weights (usually cubical, made of chert, in multiples of 16) suggest a regulated exchange system and trade.
* Terracotta Figurines:** These offer glimpses into everyday life, dress, hairstyles, and possibly religious practices (e.g., Mother Goddess figurines).
* **Architectural Remains:**
*Buildings:** The layout of cities (grid pattern), presence of citadels, lower towns, and public structures like the Great Bath and granaries provide evidence of urban planning, administration, and public life.
*Drainage Systems:** The elaborate drainage system points to advanced engineering and a concern for sanitation.
**Houses:** The design of houses (courtyards, private wells, bathrooms) gives insights into domestic life and family structures.
*Bio-archaeological Evidence:**
* **Plant Remains:** Charred grains and seeds (recovered through flotation) help identify cultivated crops and dietary patterns.
* **Animal Bones:** Bones of domesticated animals indicate animal husbandry practices, while wild animal bones suggest hunting. This also helps understand the environmental context.
* **Human Skeletons:** Studies of human remains from burials provide information on diet, health, diseases, and even social stratification (e.g., grave goods).
* **Interpreting Unfamiliar Objects:** Archaeologists often face the challenge of interpreting objects whose function is not immediately clear (e.g., the "Priest-King" statue, the purpose of the Great Bath). They use comparative analysis with other contemporary civilizations, ethnographic analogies (studying living societies), and careful inference based on context.
* **Role of Pioneers:** Early archaeologists like John Marshall and R.D. Banerji made significant discoveries but sometimes interpreted findings through a Eurocentric or Indocentric lens. Later archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler emphasized the importance of stratigraphic control and scientific methods, refining our understanding.
By piecing together evidence from all these diverse sources, archaeologists painstakingly build a comprehensive picture of the Harappan Civilization, despite the undeciphered script.
2. "The Harappan cities were characterised by a meticulously planned drainage system." Elaborate.
**Answer:** The drainage system of the Harappan cities, particularly Mohenjodaro, is one of its most remarkable and distinguishing features, clearly indicating a high level of urban planning and civic administration. The meticulousness of this system can be elaborated as follows:
*Grid Pattern Integration:** The drainage system was intrinsically linked with the grid pattern of the streets and lanes. Streets were laid out first, with drains running alongside them, before houses were built. This suggests a pre-planned layout rather than an organic growth.
*House-to-Street Connection:** Every house, irrespective of its size, had a private bathroom and courtyard. The drains from these domestic units were connected to the smaller street drains. These smaller drains then emptied into larger main drains that ran along the main streets.
*Covered Drains:** A significant aspect was that these drains were covered, primarily with baked bricks or stone slabs. This prevented foul smells and the spread of diseases, highlighting a concern for public hygiene. In some cases, inspection traps or manholes were provided at regular intervals for cleaning and maintenance.
*Sloping Mechanism:** The drains were designed with a gentle slope to ensure the smooth flow of water. This required precise engineering and a clear understanding of hydraulics.
*Use of Baked Bricks:** The widespread use of baked bricks for constructing drains ensured their durability and resistance to water damage, allowing them to last for thousands of years. This also reflects a standardized approach to construction materials.
*Evidence of Soak Pits:** In some areas, archaeologists have found evidence of soak pits or cesspits into which solid waste would settle, while wastewater flowed out. This further indicates a sophisticated approach to waste management.
Absence of Drainage in Smaller Settlements:** While the elaborate drainage system is a hallmark of major Harappan cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, smaller settlements or newer constructions in the late Harappan phase sometimes show a decline in this meticulous planning, with drains becoming less systematic or even absent, hinting at the potential weakening of central authority or resources.
Implications for Administration:** The existence of such a uniform and well-maintained drainage system across large urban centers strongly suggests a centralized authority or municipal body responsible for planning, construction, and maintenance. It implies a coordinated effort and collective decision-making, as it would have been difficult for individual householders to manage such a complex network independently.
In conclusion, the Harappan drainage system was not merely a functional necessity but a testament to their advanced urban planning, engineering skills, and a shared civic consciousness. It stands as one of the most impressive achievements of the Bronze Age.
